Heterodox Sects - Buddhism and Jainism

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Context: 6th century BCE - urban revolution, mahajanapadas, dissatisfaction with Vedic ritualism. Sixty-two heterodox schools according to Buddhist sources.
Mahavira (~599-527 BCE): 24th Tirthankara of Jainism. Born Kundagrama (Vaishali). Triratna - right faith, knowledge, conduct. Five vows including ahimsa.
Buddha (~563-483 BCE traditional): Born Lumbini, enlightenment Bodh Gaya, first sermon Sarnath, death Kushinara. Four Noble Truths, Eightfold Path, Middle Way.

The 6th century BCE saw the rise of shramanic traditions that broke with Vedic ritualism. Buddhism and Jainism are the two surviving heterodox systems; the Ajivikas (Makkhali Gosala) and Charvakas were others. CDS-OTA repeats tirthankara details, council sequences and key textual references.

Causes of Heterodox Rise

Economic surplus: Second urbanisation of the Ganga valley produced merchants (setthi) whose wealth was not validated by Vedic ritual.
Ritual excess: Brahmanical sacrifices became expensive and elaborate. Sacrifice of animals was distasteful to growing pastoral and trading classes.
Varna rigidity: Hardening of birth-based varnas alienated Vaishyas and Shudras.
Coinage and trade: Punch-marked silver coins (NBPW levels) made interest, debt and ahimsa-vegetarianism economically meaningful (oxen needed for ploughing).
Intellectual ferment: Upanishadic monism had already loosened ritual authority; the heterodox sects took the next step.

Jainism

24 Tirthankaras: Rishabhanatha (1st, bull symbol), Parshvanatha (23rd, ~872-772 BCE, four vows, historical), Mahavira (24th).
Mahavira (~599-527 BCE): Born Kundagrama near Vaishali to Siddhartha (Kshatriya, Jnatrika clan) and Trishala. Renunciation at 30, enlightenment (kaivalya) at 42 under sala tree at Jrimbhikagrama. Died at Pavapuri (Bihar) at 72.
Five vows (Mahavratas): Ahimsa (non-injury), Satya (truth), Asteya (non-stealing), Brahmacharya (celibacy - added by Mahavira to Parshvanatha's four), Aparigraha (non-possession).
Triratna: Right faith (samyak darshana), right knowledge (samyak jnana), right conduct (samyak charitra).
Doctrines: Anekantavada (manifold reality), Syadvada (conditional predication - seven valued logic), atomic theory of jiva (souls).
Sects (3rd century BCE split): Digambara (sky-clad, led by Bhadrabahu - migrated to Karnataka during Chandragupta Maurya's famine) and Svetambara (white-clad, led by Sthulabhadra - stayed in Magadha).
Councils: Pataliputra (~300 BCE, Sthulabhadra, compiled 12 Angas), Valabhi (453 CE, Devardhi Kshamasramana - final canon).
Key sites: Shravanabelagola (Karnataka - Gomateshwara Bahubali statue, 57 ft, c. 981 CE by Chamundaraya), Dilwara temples (Mt Abu), Khajuraho Jain group, Sittanavasal.
Royal patrons: Bimbisara, Ajatashatru, Udayin, Chandragupta Maurya (who died sallekhana at Shravanabelagola), Kharavela of Kalinga (Hathigumpha inscription), Kumarapala Chalukya.

Buddhism

Siddhartha Gautama (~563-483 BCE traditional; revised ~480-400 BCE): Born Lumbini (Nepal) to Shuddhodana (Shakya chief, Kapilavastu) and Mayadevi. Renunciation (Mahabhinishkramana) at 29 - the Four Sights (old man, sick man, corpse, ascetic).
Enlightenment at Bodh Gaya under the pipal tree at 35.
First sermon (Dhammachakkapavattana) at Sarnath (deer park, Isipatana) to five companions - Turning the Wheel of Law.
Death (Mahaparinirvana) at Kushinara (UP) at 80.
Four Noble Truths: (1) dukkha exists, (2) tanha is its cause, (3) it can cease, (4) the Eightfold Path leads to cessation.
Eightfold Path (Ashtangika Marga): Right view, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, right concentration.
Triratna: Buddha (teacher), Dhamma (teaching), Sangha (order).
Three Pitakas (Tripitaka, in Pali): Vinaya (monastic rules), Sutta (discourses), Abhidhamma (philosophy - added at 3rd council).
Pratityasamutpada: Doctrine of dependent origination - twelve links.
Anatta (no-self) and Anicca (impermanence): Core distinctions from Jain and Brahmanical metaphysics.

Buddhist Councils

Council	Year (approx)	Place	King / President	Outcome
First	483 BCE	Rajagriha (Saptaparni cave)	Ajatashatru / Mahakassapa	Vinaya (Upali) and Sutta (Ananda) Pitakas compiled
Second	383 BCE	Vaishali	Kalashoka / Sabakami	Split into orthodox Sthaviravadins and liberal Mahasanghikas
Third	250 BCE	Pataliputra	Ashoka / Moggaliputta Tissa	Abhidhamma Pitaka added; missions sent (Mahinda and Sanghamitra to Sri Lanka, others to Suvarnabhumi, Greek world)
Fourth	~72 CE	Kundalavana (Kashmir)	Kanishka / Vasumitra (Ashvaghosha)	Mahayana-Hinayana split formalised; commentaries in Sanskrit

Schools of Buddhism

Theravada (Hinayana): Pali canon. Buddha as historical teacher. Personal salvation through arhatship. Survives in Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos.
Mahayana: Sanskrit canon. Buddha as transcendent being; Bodhisattva ideal (Avalokiteshvara, Manjushri, Maitreya, Tara). Concepts of sunyata (Nagarjuna's Madhyamika) and vijnana (Asanga and Vasubandhu's Yogachara). Survives in China, Japan, Korea, Vietnam.
Vajrayana (Tantric): Developed ~7th century CE. Esoteric practice, mantras, mandalas, vajra rituals. Dominant in Tibet, Bhutan, Mongolia, Ladakh. Padmasambhava took it to Tibet (8th century).
Faxian (5th c CE): Chinese pilgrim who visited Chandragupta II's empire. His Foguoji (Record of Buddhist Kingdoms, also called Gaoseng Faxian Zhuan) is the earliest first-hand Chinese account of Buddhist India (2016 CDS-I PYQ).
Hiuen-Tsang (7th c CE): Visited Harshavardhana's court. Si-yu-ki.
I-Tsing (late 7th c CE): Stayed at Nalanda; described monastic life.

Ajivikas and Charvakas

Ajivikas: Founded by Makkhali Gosala (contemporary and one-time companion of Mahavira). Strict determinism (niyati) — events are predestined. Patronised by Bindusara and Ashoka (Barabar caves donated to Ajivikas).
Charvakas / Lokayatas: Materialist school attributed to Brihaspati. Only perception (pratyaksha) is valid pramana. No afterlife, no soul, no karma. Famous saying: "While life is yours, live joyously."
Other shramana groups: Purana Kassapa (akriyavada), Pakudha Kachchayana (atomism), Sanjaya Belatthiputta (sceptic), Nigantha Nataputta (Mahavira).

CDS/OTA PYQ Examples

Q: Which Buddhist text contains an account of the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka? (CDS-I 2018)

(a) Vinaya Pitaka (b) Sutta Pitaka (c) Abhidhamma Pitaka (d) Mahavamsa

Answer: (d) Mahavamsa — Sri Lankan Pali chronicle.

Q: Which one of the following statements is true about Faxian? (CDS-I 2016)

(a) Faxian's Gaoseng Faxian Zhuan was the earliest first-hand Chinese account of Buddhist sites and practices in India (b) He was 25 at the time of writing (c) His main aim was to obtain Vinaya texts (d) (a) and (c) only

Answer: (d) Statements 1 and 3 are correct; Faxian was over 60 when he reached India, so 2 is wrong.

Q: Who among the following was associated with the Ajivika sect?

(a) Makkhali Gosala (b) Mahavira (c) Buddha (d) Brihaspati

Answer: (a) Makkhali Gosala.

Q: The Third Buddhist Council was held at:

(a) Rajagriha (b) Vaishali (c) Pataliputra (d) Kundalavana

Answer: (c) Pataliputra under Ashoka, presided by Moggaliputta Tissa, 250 BCE.

Q: The fifth vow added by Mahavira to Parshvanatha's four was:

(a) Ahimsa (b) Satya (c) Asteya (d) Brahmacharya

Answer: (d) Brahmacharya.

Q: The Hathigumpha inscription was issued by:

(a) Ashoka (b) Kharavela of Kalinga (c) Kanishka (d) Rudradaman

Answer: (b) Kharavela of Kalinga — Jain king, 1st century BCE.

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Frequently Asked Questions

How are Buddhism and Jainism similar?

Both reject Vedic ritual authority and caste. Both emphasise ahimsa, karma, rebirth and moksha (or nirvana). Both arose in Magadha in the 6th century BCE among Kshatriya teachers.

How do they differ?

Jainism: strict ahimsa (extending to plants and microorganisms), eternal jiva (soul), atomic universe, severe asceticism (sallekhana). Buddhism: anatta (no permanent soul), Middle Way (rejects extreme asceticism), pratityasamutpada (dependent origination).

Who were the great Buddhist philosophers?

Nagarjuna (Madhyamika, sunyavada, 2nd c CE), Asanga and Vasubandhu (Yogachara, 4th-5th c), Dignaga and Dharmakirti (Buddhist logic, 6th-7th c), Buddhaghosha (Theravada commentator, 5th c).

Why did Buddhism decline in India?

Brahmanical absorption (Buddha became an avatar of Vishnu), corruption of the Sangha, withdrawal of royal patronage after the Palas, Turkic invasions destroying Nalanda (1193) and Vikramashila.

What is the difference between Theravada and Mahayana?

Theravada (Pali, conservative) follows Buddha as historical teacher with arhatship as goal. Mahayana (Sanskrit) introduces Bodhisattvas, sunyata and the goal of universal Buddhahood. Split formalised at the 4th Council.