Bhakti and Sufi Movements and Saints

The Bhakti and Sufi movements together remade Indian devotional life from the 7th to 17th centuries — emphasising personal relationship with the divine, vernacular expression, and social inclusion. CDS-OTA tests saint-region pairings, sayings and the role of Akbar's Ibadat Khana.

Alvars and Nayanars (South India, 6-9th c)

• Alvars (Vaishnavite, 12): Poyigai, Bhutham, Pey (first three), Tirumalisai, Nammalvar (greatest, 4,000-verse Tiruvaymoli), Madhurakavi, Kulasekhara (king-saint of Kerala), Periyalvar and his daughter Andal (only female Alvar, Tiruppavai and Nachiar Tirumozhi), Tondaradippodi, Tiruppanalvar, Tirumangai.
• Nayanars (Shaivite, 63): Tirunavukkarasar (Appar), Sambandar, Sundarar, Manikkavasagar (composer of Tiruvasagam). Their hymns are collected in the Tirumurai.
• Compiled: Alvar hymns into Divya Prabandham (4,000 verses) by Nathamuni (~10th c).
• Significance: Foundational to South Indian temple culture; the Alvar saints toured 108 Divya Desams (sacred Vishnu shrines) and Nayanars toured 275 Padal Petra Sthalams.

Vaishnavite Acharyas

Acharya	Period	Philosophy	Sampradaya
Adi Shankara	~788-820 CE	Advaita (non-dualism); jagat mithya, brahma satya	Smarta / Sankaracharyas at four mathas
Ramanuja	~1017-1137	Vishishtadvaita (qualified non-dualism); jiva is real, part of Brahman	Sri Vaishnava (Vadagalai and Tenkalai)
Madhva	~1238-1317	Dvaita (dualism); jiva and Brahman eternally distinct	Madhva / Brahma Sampradaya
Nimbarka	~13th c	Dvaitadvaita (dual-non-dual)	Nimbarka Sampradaya
Vallabha	1479-1531	Shuddhadvaita (pure non-dualism); pushtimarga, Krishna devotion	Pushtimarga (Vallabha Sampradaya)
Chaitanya Mahaprabhu	1486-1534	Achintya bhedabheda; Krishna bhakti through sankirtana	Gaudiya Vaishnava (Bengal)

North Indian Bhakti Saints

• Ramananda (~14-15th c, Varanasi): Disciple of Raghavananda (in turn from Ramanuja line). Composed in Hindi. Twelve famous disciples — Kabir, Ravidas (Raidas, cobbler-saint), Sena (barber), Sadhna (butcher), Pipa (Rajput king), Dhanna (Jat peasant) — radical social inclusion.
• Kabir (~1440-1518): Weaver of Varanasi. Nirguna (formless) bhakti. Bijak, Sakhi, Ramaini. Doha and Sakhi forms. Disciples are Kabirpanthis. Both Hindus and Muslims claimed his body — story of flowers replacing the corpse at Maghar.
• Guru Nanak (1469-1539): Born Talwandi (Nankana Sahib). Travelled extensively (four udasis). Settled at Kartarpur. Founded Sikhism. Key teachings — Ik Onkar, three pillars — Naam Japna, Kirat Karni, Vand Chhakna. Compositions in Adi Granth.
• Mirabai (1498-1547): Rajput princess of Merta, widow of Bhojraj of Mewar. Krishna bhakti in Brij and Rajasthani. "Mere to giridhar gopal".
• Tulsidas (1532-1623): Awadhi Ramcharitmanas (1574, at Varanasi). Also Vinaya Patrika, Kavitavali.
• Surdas (1478-1583): Krishna devotee. Brajbhasha Sursagar. Blind poet of the Pushtimarga.
• Maharashtra: Jnaneshwar (Jnaneshwari, 13th c), Namdev (Marathi-Hindi, 14th c), Eknath (16th c), Tukaram (Abhangas, 17th c), Ramdas (Dasbodh — Shivaji's mentor).
• Bengal: Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (1486-1534), sankirtana movement.
• Assam: Sankardev (1449-1568) — Eka-sarana-dharma, Borgeet, Bhaona drama.
• Karnataka Veerashaiva (Lingayat): Basavanna (12th c) — vachana literature, anti-caste anti-ritual Shiva bhakti.

Sufism in India

• Origins: Sufism developed in Iraq, Persia and Khorasan from 8-9th c. Hierarchy — Pir, Murid, Khanqah (hospice), Sama (devotional music).
• Four main silsilas in India:
  • Chishti — founded in Ajmer by Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti (~1141-1236). Open to all, including Hindus. Wahdat-ul-Wujud (Ibn Arabi). Used qawwali. Main centres — Ajmer, Delhi, Ajodhan (Pakpattan), Khuldabad.
  • Suhrawardi — Bahauddin Zakariya of Multan (~1182-1262). Accepted royal patronage and wealth (unlike Chishti austerity).
  • Naqshbandi — Khwaja Baqi Billah brought to Delhi (~1600). Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi (Mujaddid-i-Alf-i-Sani, 1564-1624) — championed Wahdat-ush-Shuhud (orthodox alternative to Wahdat-ul-Wujud).
  • Qadri — Founded in Baghdad by Abdul Qadir Jilani. Mian Mir (Lahore, laid foundation of Golden Temple). Dara Shukoh's master.
• Major Chishti silsila:
  • Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti — Ajmer.
  • Bakhtiyar Kaki — Delhi.
  • Baba Farid (Shaikh Fariduddin Ganj-i-Shakar) — Ajodhan / Pakpattan.
  • Nizamuddin Auliya (1238-1325) — Delhi. Contemporary of seven Sultans. Disciple of Baba Farid. Mentor of Amir Khusrau.
  • Nasiruddin Chiragh-i-Dilli (d. 1356).
  • Shaikh Salim Chishti of Fatehpur Sikri (Akbar's contemporary).
• Amir Khusrau (1253-1325): Disciple of Nizamuddin Auliya. Persian and Hindavi poet. Credited with inventing the tabla, sitar, and many qawwalis. Wrote Tughlaq-nama, Khazain-ul-Futuh, Tarikh-i-Alai. Self-described as "Tuti-i-Hind" (Parrot of India).

Akbar's Ibadat Khana and Dara Shukoh

• Ibadat Khana (Hall of Worship, Fatehpur Sikri, 1575): Initially for Muslim ulema only; from 1578 opened to Hindus, Jains, Christians (Jesuits Aquaviva, Monserrate, Henriques), Zoroastrians.
• Mahzar (1579): Declared Akbar the supreme arbiter on religious matters within Hanafi law.
• Din-i-Ilahi / Tauhid-i-Ilahi (1582): Personal ethical fraternity rather than a religion. ~18 disciples including Birbal.
• Dara Shukoh (1615-1659): Eldest son of Shah Jahan. Translated Upanishads (52) into Persian as Sirr-i-Akbar (1657) — later rendered into Latin by Anquetil-Duperron (1801) and read by Schopenhauer. Also Majma-ul-Bahrain (Mingling of Two Oceans) on Sufi-Vedanta parallels. Killed by Aurangzeb (1659).

Social Significance

• Vernacularisation: Bhakti poets composed in Tamil, Kannada, Marathi, Hindi, Punjabi, Bengali, Assamese, Brij — laying the basis for modern Indian literatures.
• Anti-caste: Ramananda accepted disciples from all castes; Kabir attacked Brahmin ritualism; Ravidas was a chamar; Basavanna's Veerashaivism rejected caste.
• Hindu-Muslim cross-fertilisation: Kabir's nirguna; Sikh Adi Granth includes Sufi compositions (Baba Farid's verses); Akbar's syncretism; Dara Shukoh's translations.
• Status of women: Andal, Mirabai, Lal Ded of Kashmir (Lalleshwari, 14th c), Akka Mahadevi (Veerashaiva, 12th c) became major poets.
• Music: Qawwali (Sufi devotional), Kirtan (Vaishnav), Abhang (Marathi), Padam — fed into Hindustani and Carnatic classical traditions.

CDS/OTA PYQ Examples

Frequently Asked Questions

What is the difference between Saguna and Nirguna Bhakti?

Saguna bhakti worships God with attributes (form) — Krishna, Rama. Saints — Tulsidas, Mirabai, Surdas. Nirguna bhakti worships the formless absolute. Saints — Kabir, Nanak, Dadu Dayal. Both reject ritual mediation but differ in theology.

How are Bhakti and Sufism similar?

Both emphasise personal love of the divine over ritual orthodoxy; vernacular expression; spiritual equality across social distinctions; mystical experience (samadhi/fana); use of music and poetry; teacher-disciple relationship (guru-shishya / pir-murid).

Who was Amir Khusrau?

Persian and Hindavi poet of Delhi (1253-1325), disciple of Nizamuddin Auliya. Wrote khamsa modelled on Nizami, historical works on Khalji and Tughlaq dynasties. Credited with inventing the tabla, qawwali form, the khayal form's predecessor, and Hindavi compositions still sung.

Why did the Bhakti movement spread northwards?

Decline of orthodox Brahmanism through Turkish invasions, exposure to Sufi pir tradition, rise of vernacular literatures, peasant and artisan economy that needed spiritual access without expensive Sanskrit ritual, and the model set by South Indian Alvars and Nayanars.

What was Akbar's Ibadat Khana?

A hall built at Fatehpur Sikri in 1575 for religious discussions, originally between Muslim ulema. From 1578 Akbar opened it to Hindus, Jains, Zoroastrians and Jesuit Christians. Led to the Mahzar (1579) and Din-i-Ilahi (1582).

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