The Mughal Empire

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Founded 1526: Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodhi at First Battle of Panipat. Six 'Great Mughals': Babur, Humayun, Akbar, Jahangir, Shah Jahan, Aurangzeb (1526-1707).
Akbar (1556-1605): Greatest. Mansabdari, Din-i-Ilahi, religious tolerance. Capital Fatehpur Sikri then Agra.
Decline: Started after Aurangzeb. 1707-1857 — gradual disintegration. Last Mughal Bahadur Shah Zafar deposed 1858 after 1857 revolt.

The Mughal Empire ruled most of the Indian subcontinent for over 200 years (1526-1707), leaving a deep cultural legacy. NDA tests the six Great Mughals, their administrative innovations, key battles, and Mughal architecture.

Babur and Humayun

Babur (1526-30):

Descendant of Timur (paternal) and Genghis Khan (maternal).
Defeated Ibrahim Lodi at First Battle of Panipat (1526) — Mughal Empire founded.
Defeated Rana Sanga at Khanwa (1527); Medini Rai at Chanderi (1528); Mahmud Lodi at Ghagra (1529).
Used artillery and Ottoman-style cavalry tactics.
Wrote Baburnama (memoirs) in Turkish.

Humayun (1530-40, 1555-56):

Defeated by Sher Shah Suri at Chausa (1539) and Kannauj (1540). Fled to Persia.
Restored throne in 1555 after Sur Empire collapsed; died falling down library stairs.

Sher Shah Suri (1540-45): Interregnum. Excellent administrator — built Grand Trunk Road (Sonargaon to Peshawar), introduced rupiya (silver coin), efficient revenue system. Mausoleum at Sasaram.

Akbar (1556-1605)

Came to throne at 13 after Humayun. Regent Bairam Khan until 1560.
Second Battle of Panipat (1556): Defeated Hemu (the last Hindu emperor of Delhi).
Empire: Kabul to Bengal, Kashmir to Deccan (Khandesh, Berar, Ahmadnagar).
Mansabdari system: Military-cum-bureaucratic ranking. Zat (personal rank) and Sawar (troops to maintain). Highest rank: 7,000 zat and 7,000 sawar (only royal princes got 10,000).
Religious policy: Abolished jizya (1564), pilgrim tax. Din-i-Ilahi (1582): An eclectic 'divine religion' — not Islam, not Hinduism. Very few followers (~19).
Ibadat Khana at Fatehpur Sikri — interfaith dialogue.
Nine Jewels (Navratnas): Birbal, Tansen, Todar Mal, Abul Fazl, Faizi, Abdul Rahim Khan-i-Khanan, Mulla Do-Piyaza, Hakim Humam, Raja Man Singh.
Todar Mal's bandobast: Land revenue system — Zabti (measurement-based assessment) and Dahsala (10-year average).
Capitals: Agra, Fatehpur Sikri (1571-85), Lahore (1585-98), back to Agra.
Abul Fazl's works: Akbarnama and Ain-i-Akbari.

Jahangir, Shah Jahan, Aurangzeb

Jahangir (1605-27):

Salim — son of Akbar.
Married Mehrunissa (Nur Jahan, 1611). She wielded great influence.
Sir Thomas Roe (English ambassador) visited (1615-19).
Capital: Agra → Lahore.

Shah Jahan (1628-58):

Khurram — son of Jahangir.
Architecture peak: Taj Mahal (1632-53, by Ustad Ahmad Lahauri), Red Fort, Jama Masjid (Delhi), Peacock Throne.
Capital shifted to Shahjahanabad (Old Delhi) in 1648.
Deposed by son Aurangzeb (1658); imprisoned at Agra Fort.

Aurangzeb (1658-1707):

Last great Mughal. Empire reached max extent (most of subcontinent).
Reintroduced jizya (1679). Demolished some Hindu temples. Strict Islamic governance.
Deccan policy: Spent last 25 years fighting Marathas, Bijapur, Golconda. Conquered Bijapur (1686) and Golconda (1687).
Executed Sikh Guru Tegh Bahadur (1675); imprisoned Shivaji.
Died in Aurangabad. Empire began rapid decline thereafter.

Mughal Administration

Emperor (Padshah) — absolute ruler. Theory of divine kingship.
Wakil (chief minister), Diwan (finance), Mir Bakshi (military), Sadr (religious affairs).
Provincial: Subah → Sarkar → Pargana → Village. Subah governed by Subahdar; Diwan; Bakhshi.
Mansabdari: Military-cum-civil hierarchy. Ranks from 10 to 10,000 zat.
Land revenue: Zabti (measurement), Ghalla Bakshi (crop sharing). Todar Mal's reforms standardised.
Jagirs: Land assignments in lieu of salary. Transferable, not hereditary.

Decline of the Mughal Empire

After Aurangzeb's death (1707), the empire fragmented rapidly:

Marathas emerged in Deccan (Shivaji 1674; Peshwas 1713 onwards).
Nadir Shah of Persia invaded (1739); sacked Delhi, took Peacock Throne and Kohinoor.
Ahmad Shah Abdali invaded multiple times. Third Battle of Panipat (1761) — Marathas defeated.
British East India Company gradually expanded. Battle of Plassey (1757), Buxar (1764).
Later Mughals became pensioners of the British.
Bahadur Shah Zafar — last Mughal — exiled to Rangoon after 1857 Revolt. Died 1862.

NDA PYQ Examples

Q: Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi at:

(a) Khanwa (b) Ghagra (c) First Battle of Panipat (d) Chanderi

Answer: (c) First Battle of Panipat (1526).

Q: The 'Mansabdari system' was introduced by:

(a) Babur (b) Akbar (c) Sher Shah (d) Aurangzeb

Answer: (b) Akbar.

Q: Who built the Taj Mahal?

(a) Akbar (b) Jahangir (c) Shah Jahan (d) Aurangzeb

Answer: (c) Shah Jahan — for Mumtaz Mahal.

Q: Sir Thomas Roe came to India during the reign of:

(a) Akbar (b) Jahangir (c) Shah Jahan (d) Aurangzeb

Answer: (b) Jahangir.

Q: Aurangzeb reintroduced which tax in 1679?

(a) Khams (b) Zakat (c) Jizya (d) Sawai

Answer: (c) Jizya — on non-Muslims.

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Frequently Asked Questions

Who built the Grand Trunk Road?

Sher Shah Suri (1540-45) — from Sonargaon (Bangladesh) to Peshawar (Pakistan), ~2,500 km. Originally called 'Sadak-e-Azam'. The British improved and renamed it. Still in use as NH-1 and NH-2.

What was Din-i-Ilahi?

Akbar's eclectic 'Divine Religion' (1582) drawing from Islam, Hinduism, Jainism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity. Very few followers; died with Akbar. More a philosophical brotherhood than an organised religion.

Who were the Nine Jewels of Akbar?

Birbal (wit/poetry), Tansen (music), Todar Mal (finance), Abul Fazl (chronicler), Faizi (poet), Abdul Rahim Khan-i-Khanan (poet/general), Mulla Do-Piyaza (humorist), Hakim Humam (physician), Raja Man Singh (general).

Why did Aurangzeb's policies weaken the Mughal empire?

Reintroduced jizya, demolished Hindu temples in north India, alienating Rajput allies. Spent last 25 years in costly Deccan wars against Marathas. Religious intolerance + military overextension + dispersed treasury together undermined imperial cohesion.

Who was the last Mughal Emperor?

Bahadur Shah Zafar (1837-1857). A poet and figurehead. Reluctantly led the 1857 Revolt; defeated, tried, and exiled to Rangoon (Burma) where he died in 1862.