The Harappan Civilisation
~10 min read
- Period: ~2500-1700 BCE. Bronze Age. Earlier than Vedic Period.
- Major sites: Harappa (1921, Punjab Pakistan), Mohenjo-daro (1922, Sindh), Lothal (Gujarat - dockyard), Dholavira (Gujarat - water management), Kalibangan (Rajasthan - ploughed field), Banawali, Rakhigarhi (Haryana - largest).
- Features: Planned cities (grid pattern), Great Bath, granaries, standardised weights, seals (mostly steatite), no temples, no monarchy evidence.
The Harappan or Indus Valley Civilisation was India's first urban culture — among the world's earliest. Discovered systematically in 1921-22, it astonished archaeologists with its town planning and standardisation. NDA tests sites, features, and Kenoyer's interpretations.
Discovery and Extent
- 1826: Charles Masson first noticed Harappa ruins.
- 1856: Brunton brothers used bricks from Harappa for railway ballast.
- 1921: Daya Ram Sahni excavated Harappa under John Marshall (ASI).
- 1922: R.D. Banerjee excavated Mohenjo-daro.
- 1924: John Marshall announced discovery of Indus Civilisation to the world.
- Extent: ~1.3 million km² spread across modern Pakistan, India and Afghanistan. Western boundary: Sutkagen-dor (Iran border). Eastern: Alamgirpur (UP). Northern: Manda (J&K). Southern: Daimabad (Maharashtra). Largest known site: Rakhigarhi (Haryana).
Major Sites and Their Features
| Site | State/Region | Distinctive feature |
|---|---|---|
| Harappa | Punjab (Pakistan) | First discovered; six granaries |
| Mohenjo-daro | Sindh (Pakistan) | Great Bath, Great Granary, Assembly Hall, 'Priest King' statue, Dancing Girl bronze |
| Lothal | Gujarat | Artificial dockyard; bead-making; fire altars |
| Dholavira | Gujarat | Sophisticated water harvesting; signboard with 10 large Harappan signs; UNESCO World Heritage |
| Kalibangan | Rajasthan | Ploughed field (earliest evidence of ploughing); fire altars |
| Banawali | Haryana | Both pre-Harappan and Harappan settlements |
| Rakhigarhi | Haryana | Largest known Harappan site (~350 hectares) |
| Surkotada | Gujarat | Only site with horse bones |
| Chanhudaro | Sindh | Only city without citadel; bead factory |
Civilisation Features
- Town planning: Grid pattern (N-S and E-W streets at right angles). Two parts — citadel (raised, public buildings) and lower town (residential).
- Drainage: Underground covered drains in every city. Manholes for cleaning.
- Materials: Burnt bricks (1:2:4 ratio); standardised across all sites.
- Public buildings: Great Bath (Mohenjo-daro — ritual?), granaries, assembly halls. No temples or palaces identified.
- Economy: Agriculture (wheat, barley, peas, cotton — earliest cotton growing), animal husbandry, crafts (bead-making, metallurgy), trade with Mesopotamia (Meluhha references).
- Seals: ~3,500 seals found. Mostly steatite. Pictographic script (undeciphered). Common motif: bull, unicorn-like animal.
- Standardisation: Weights in binary (1, 2, 4, 8...) and decimal multiples. Length unit ~33 mm. Same standards across sites.
- Crafts (Kenoyer): Extraordinary skill in bead-making, terracotta figurines, bronze casting (lost-wax method).
Decline
Several theories — likely combination:
- Climate change (drying of Saraswati / Ghaggar-Hakra river).
- Tectonic shifts changing river courses.
- Aryan invasion theory (largely discredited now).
- Repeated floods (Mohenjo-daro especially).
- Trade decline with Mesopotamia.
- Internal degeneration of cities (later strata show inferior workmanship).
By ~1700 BCE, Harappan cities were abandoned. Successor cultures (Cemetery H, Late Harappan) were less urban.
NDA PYQ Examples
Q: The Harappan civilisation was discovered in:
(a) 1856 (b) 1921 (c) 1947 (d) 1971
Answer: (b) 1921 — Daya Ram Sahni excavated Harappa.
Q: Which Harappan site has the dockyard?
(a) Harappa (b) Mohenjo-daro (c) Lothal (d) Kalibangan
Answer: (c) Lothal — Gujarat.
Q: Largest Harappan site discovered so far:
(a) Mohenjo-daro (b) Harappa (c) Rakhigarhi (d) Dholavira
Answer: (c) Rakhigarhi — Haryana, ~350 hectares.
Q: According to Kenoyer, Harappan craft standardisation was achieved by:
(a) Specialised training centres (b) State control (c) Centralised markets (d) Local raw material availability
Answer: (a) Specialised training centres for craftsmen (one of Kenoyer's theses).
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Start Free Mock TestFrequently Asked Questions
How is Harappan different from Vedic civilisation?
Harappan: urban, ~2500-1700 BCE, mainly Indus valley, used Bronze, undeciphered script. Vedic: rural/semi-urban, ~1500-600 BCE, Indo-Gangetic plain, used iron (later), oral Sanskrit tradition, animal sacrifices, distinct deities.
What was the script of the Harappans?
Pictographic script — about 400 symbols — written right to left. Despite efforts since the 1920s, it remains undeciphered. Without a Rosetta-stone equivalent, full decipherment is unlikely.
What was the Great Bath used for?
Found at Mohenjo-daro. Likely used for ritual bathing. Built with watertight burnt bricks and natural bitumen. The largest public structure at the site.
Why did the Harappans not build temples?
No temple structures have been definitively identified — distinct from contemporary Mesopotamian and Egyptian civilisations. Religious practices may have been domestic or used spaces we cannot now identify as religious.
What does 'Meluhha' refer to?
The Mesopotamian name for the Indus region in cuneiform inscriptions. Indicates active trade between Sumer/Akkad and the Harappans (~2300 BCE).