National Movement - Gandhian Phase and Mass Campaigns

Gandhi transformed the Congress from an upper-middle-class deliberative body into a mass organisation through three nationwide satyagrahas. CDS-OTA examiners test the precise sequence — Champaran (1917), Rowlatt Satyagraha (1919), Khilafat-Non-Cooperation (1920-22), Civil Disobedience (1930-34), Quit India (1942).

Gandhi's Return and Early Satyagrahas

• Return from South Africa on 9 January 1915 (Pravasi Bharatiya Divas). Stayed at Gopal Krishna Gokhale's Servants of India Society initially. Founded Sabarmati Ashram (Kochrab 1915, shifted to Sabarmati 1917).
• Champaran Satyagraha (April 1917): Indigo planters' grievances in Champaran (Bihar) — tinkathia system. Gandhi defied magistrate's order; secured Champaran Agrarian Act 1918. First civil disobedience in India.
• Ahmedabad Mill Workers (Feb-March 1918): Gandhi mediated between Ahmedabad textile millworkers (under Anasuyaben Sarabhai) and millowners (Ambalal Sarabhai). His first hunger strike; settled on 35% raise. Led to formation of Textile Labour Association (TLA, 1920).
• Kheda Satyagraha (March-June 1918): Kheda (Gujarat) peasants asked for revenue suspension after crop failure. Gandhi with Vallabhbhai Patel, Indulal Yajnik. Quiet government concession.

Rowlatt and Jallianwala Bagh

• Rowlatt Act (Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act), 1919: Allowed detention without trial; sedition trials without juries. "No appeal, no daleel, no vakil" said Indians.
• Rowlatt Satyagraha (6 April 1919): Gandhi's first nationwide call. Hartals across north India. Some violence — Gandhi suspended satyagraha.
• Jallianwala Bagh (13 April 1919): Brigadier-General Reginald Dyer opened fire on unarmed crowd at Amritsar — 379 official (1000+ Indian estimates) killed. Tagore renounced his knighthood; Gandhi returned his Kaiser-i-Hind medal.
• Hunter Commission (1919-20): Whitewashed Dyer; the House of Commons censured him but House of Lords supported him. Udham Singh assassinated Lt Governor O'Dwyer (the man who approved Dyer's action) in London in 1940.

Non-Cooperation and Khilafat (1920-1922)

• Khilafat issue: Treaty of Sevres (1920) reduced Ottoman Caliphate. Indian Muslims (Ali brothers, Azad) joined Congress in protest.
• Calcutta Special Session (September 1920): Approved Gandhi's Non-Cooperation programme. Endorsed at Nagpur (Dec 1920) under C. Vijayaraghavachariar.
• Non-Cooperation Programme:
  • Surrender of titles and offices.
  • Boycott of British schools, colleges, courts.
  • Boycott of foreign cloth — promotion of khadi and charkha.
  • Boycott of legislative councils (Tilak's Congress wing wanted entry — split with Swarajists later).
  • Boycott of Prince of Wales's visit (Nov 1921 — Bombay riots).
  • Refusal to pay taxes (planned, not implemented).
• National institutions: Jamia Millia Islamia (1920 - Mohammad Ali, Hakim Ajmal Khan), Kashi Vidyapith (1921 - Bhagwan Das), Gujarat Vidyapith (1920 - Gandhi), Bihar Vidyapith.
• Chauri Chaura (5 February 1922): A crowd of demonstrators in Chauri Chaura (UP) burned 22 policemen alive. Gandhi suspended Non-Cooperation on 12 February 1922 — controversial decision.
• Gandhi imprisoned (March 1922, sentenced to six years; released 1924 for appendicitis).
• Swaraj Party (1923): CR Das, Motilal Nehru — entered councils despite Gandhian boycott.

Civil Disobedience and Salt March (1930-1934)

• Simon Commission boycott (1928): "Simon Go Back". Lala Lajpat Rai died Nov 1928 after lathi assault at Lahore. Bhagat Singh killed John Saunders in retaliation (Dec 1928).
• Nehru Report (1928): First Indian-drafted constitutional proposal under Motilal Nehru. Demanded dominion status; rejected by League over separate electorates.
• Lahore Session (December 1929, Jawaharlal Nehru president):
  • Adopted Purna Swaraj (complete independence) resolution.
  • 26 January 1930 declared Independence Day — flag hoisted at Lahore on the Ravi.
• Salt Satyagraha:
  • Dandi March 12 March - 6 April 1930. Gandhi with 78 followers walked 240 miles from Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi (Gujarat). Picked up salt on 6 April.
  • C. Rajagopalachari led parallel march to Vedaranyam (Madras).
  • Sarojini Naidu led Dharasana salt works raid (May 1930) — beaten by police; Webb Miller's reporting shook world opinion.
  • Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan (Frontier Gandhi) led Khudai Khidmatgar (Red Shirts) in NWFP. Peshawar incident 23 April 1930 — Garhwal Rifles refused to fire.
• Round Table Conferences (London, 1930-32): First (Nov 1930), Second (Sep 1931 - Gandhi attended after Gandhi-Irwin Pact 5 March 1931), Third (Nov 1932 - thin).
• Communal Award (16 August 1932): Ramsay MacDonald. Separate electorates for depressed classes. Gandhi fasted 20 September 1932 at Yerawada Jail. Poona Pact (24 Sep 1932) — Gandhi-Ambedkar — replaced separate electorates with 148 reserved seats.
• Civil Disobedience resumed 1932-34; called off May 1934. Gandhi temporarily withdrew from active politics (1934-39).

Interwar Years and 1937 Elections

• Government of India Act 1935 implemented provincial autonomy.
• Elections of 1937: Congress won 8 of 11 provinces - formed ministries in Bombay, Madras, UP, CP, Bihar, Orissa, NWFP and later Sind. Major Hindu-Muslim cleavage emerged - Muslim League performed poorly but the experience hardened Jinnah's stance.
• Faizpur Session (1936): First INC session in a village (Maharashtra); peasant focus, Kisan Sabhas grew.
• Haripura (1938) and Tripuri (1939): Subhas Chandra Bose elected Congress president 1938 and re-elected 1939 against Gandhi's wish — Bose later resigned and founded the Forward Bloc (1939).
• Outbreak of WWII (September 1939): Viceroy Linlithgow declared India at war without consulting Congress. Congress ministries resigned in October-November 1939. Muslim League observed "Deliverance Day". Lahore Resolution (March 1940) demanded Pakistan.
• August Offer (1940) and Cripps Mission (1942) rejected.

Quit India and the Endgame

• Quit India Resolution passed by AICC at Gowalia Tank Maidan, Bombay (8 August 1942). Gandhi's slogan: "Do or Die".
• 9 August 1942: Major Congress leaders arrested (Gandhi at Aga Khan Palace, Pune; others at Ahmednagar Fort).
• Parallel governments: Ballia (Chittu Pandey, six days), Satara (Prati Sarkar, ~two years - Y.B. Chavan, Nana Patil), Tamluk (Tamralipta Jatiya Sarkar, 1942-44, Bengal).
• Underground leaders: Jayaprakash Narayan (escaped Hazaribagh jail 1942), Aruna Asaf Ali (hoisted flag at Gowalia Tank), Ram Manohar Lohia, Achyut Patwardhan, Sucheta Kripalani.
• Wavell Plan (June 1945) and Simla Conference - broke down on Muslim League's claim to represent all Muslims.
• INA Trials (Red Fort, Nov 1945) - Shah Nawaz Khan, P.K. Sehgal, G.S. Dhillon defended by Bhulabhai Desai, Nehru, Tej Bahadur Sapru. Verdict acceptance; popular uprising. Public sympathy ensured early release.
• Naval Mutiny (Feb 1946): RIN ratings at Bombay - sympathy strikes nationwide. Triggered British realisation that army loyalty was uncertain.
• Cabinet Mission (March 1946): Pethick-Lawrence, Cripps, Alexander. Proposed three-tier federation (group provinces). Accepted then rejected.
• Direct Action Day (16 August 1946): Calcutta riots — over 4000 killed in four days.
• Mountbatten Plan (3 June 1947): Partition.
• Indian Independence Act 1947: Royal assent 18 July; partition 14-15 August. Pakistan 14 August (Karachi). India 15 August at midnight (Tryst with Destiny - Nehru). Cyril Radcliffe Boundary Award announced 17 August.

CDS/OTA PYQ Examples

Frequently Asked Questions

Why did Gandhi suspend Non-Cooperation after Chauri Chaura?

Gandhi believed mass movement required absolute non-violence. The Chauri Chaura killings of 22 policemen showed that the movement was not yet disciplined enough. He calculated that violence would invite full government repression and discredit non-cooperation in the eyes of Indians and Britons alike.

What were the three Gandhian satyagrahas before Non-Cooperation?

Champaran (April 1917, indigo planters in Bihar), Ahmedabad Mill Workers (February-March 1918, textile workers' wage dispute), and Kheda (March-June 1918, Gujarat peasants asking for revenue suspension after crop failure).

Why is the Dandi March important?

It dramatised colonial taxation (the salt tax fell on the poorest), demonstrated mass non-violent resistance to a global audience, marked Gandhi's leadership of the second wave of agitation, and triggered the Round Table Conferences. Tagore wrote of Gandhi descending on Dandi like a 'pilgrim of freedom'.

What was the impact of Quit India?

It was the largest mass uprising of the colonial period. Within months, the central administration was paralysed in several districts. Parallel governments operated for varying durations. Although suppressed by 1944, it demonstrated that British rule could no longer be sustained, especially after WWII drained Britain's resources.

Why did Partition happen?

Multiple causes interacted - separate electorates from 1909 hardening communal politics, the failure of the Lucknow Pact framework, the Lahore Resolution 1940, mistrust between Congress and League leaderships, Direct Action Day 1946 violence, the British rush to leave under Attlee and Mountbatten, and the inability to agree on a federal structure that would accommodate Muslim political demands.

Related Topics

CDS/OTA HistoryEarly Phase National Movement CDS/OTA HistoryRevolutionary Struggle CDS/OTA HistoryConstitutional Acts CDS/OTA HistoryPeasant Tribal Uprisings CDS/OTAHistory — Full Syllabus