Maratha Empire - Shivaji and Administration
~11 min read
- Shivaji: Born 1630 Shivneri to Shahji Bhonsle and Jijabai. Crowned 1674 Raigad. Died 1680. Built navy, fort network, Ashtapradhan council.
- Peshwas: Office became hereditary under Balaji Vishwanath (1713). Bajirao I, Balaji Bajirao (Nanasaheb), Madhavrao I. Defeated at Panipat III (1761).
- Confederacy: After Madhavrao - five great houses: Peshwas (Pune), Bhonsle (Nagpur), Gaekwad (Baroda), Holkar (Indore), Sindhia (Gwalior). Defeated in Anglo-Maratha Wars 1818.
The Marathas emerged from the Western Deccan to challenge and ultimately succeed the Mughals as the principal Indian land power. CDS-OTA tests Shivaji's Ashtapradhan, the chauth-sardeshmukhi fiscal device, the three Anglo-Maratha wars, and the Treaty of Bassein (1802).
Shivaji's Rise (1645-1680)
- Birth: 19 February 1630 at Shivneri fort to Shahji Bhonsle (Bijapur general) and Jijabai. Tutored by Dadoji Konddev. Spiritual mentor — Samarth Ramdas (Dasbodh).
- Early conquests (from age 16): Capture of Torna (1646), Rajgad, Kondana (1647), Purandar.
- Afzal Khan episode (1659): Killed Afzal Khan of Bijapur with the wagh-nakh (tiger-claws) at the foot of Pratapgad — a transformative event.
- Shaista Khan (1663): Surprise night attack on Mughal viceroy at Lal Mahal, Pune — Shaista Khan lost three fingers.
- Surat raid (1664): Looted Mughal port; repeated 1670.
- Treaty of Purandar (1665): With Mirza Raja Jai Singh of Amber (Aurangzeb's general) — surrendered 23 of 35 forts and visited Agra.
- Agra escape (1666): Famous escape from Aurangzeb's house arrest in fruit baskets.
- Coronation at Raigad (6 June 1674): Performed by Pandit Gaga Bhatt of Varanasi. Title Chhatrapati.
- Karnataka campaign (1676-78): Captured Gingee, Vellore, Bednur.
- Death: 3 April 1680 at Raigad. Succeeded by son Sambhaji.
Ashtapradhan (Council of Eight)
| Office | Role |
|---|---|
| Peshwa (Mukhya Pradhan) | Prime Minister |
| Amatya (Mazumdar) | Finance, accounts |
| Sachiv (Surnis / Shurunavis) | Correspondence, royal seal |
| Mantri (Waqia-navis) | Personal records of king, intelligence |
| Senapati (Sar-i-Naubat) | Commander-in-chief |
| Sumant (Dabir) | Foreign affairs |
| Nyayadhish | Chief Justice |
| Panditrao (Danadhyaksha) | Religious and charitable affairs |
All except Nyayadhish and Panditrao could be assigned to military commands.
Shivaji's Administration
- Provinces (Prant or Subha): Divided into Pargana → Tarf → Mauja (village).
- Forts: Backbone of Maratha military system. Each fort had three officers — havaldar, sabnis, sarnobat — for security against any one commander seizing it.
- Army: Two parts — paga (regular cavalry) and silahdars (with own horses, contracted). Infantry of mavlas. Navy under Sarkhel.
- Land revenue: Replaced Deshmukhi-Patil intermediaries with direct revenue assessment after Annaji Datto's survey. State demand 40% (later 50%).
- Chauth and Sardeshmukhi:
- Chauth — one-fourth of revenue exacted from neighbouring territories (notionally for protection from raids).
- Sardeshmukhi — additional 10% claimed as "Sardeshmukh" (overlord of zamindars) of the Deccan.
- Coinage: Hon (gold) and Shivrai (copper).
- Religious policy: Patron of Hindu temples but employed Muslim officers (e.g. Daulat Khan in navy). Refused conversion of war captives.
Sambhaji, Rajaram, Shahu
- Sambhaji (1681-1689): Continuous war with Aurangzeb (who personally moved south in 1681 and never returned). Captured at Sangameshwar by Muqarrab Khan, taken to Tulapur and executed (1689) for refusing to convert and reveal Mughal hostages.
- Rajaram (1689-1700): Fled to Gingee fort (Jinji); ran the war from south India.
- Tarabai (regent 1700-08, Rajaram's widow): Continued war against Aurangzeb in the Deccan.
- Shahu (released 1707): Released by Bahadur Shah I. Defeated Tarabai at Khed (1708) — Tarabai and son Shivaji II shifted to Kolhapur (Kolhapur branch).
- Office of Peshwa becomes paramount: Under Shahu, Balaji Vishwanath (1713) was made Peshwa; effectively the king became a figurehead.
The Peshwas
| Peshwa | Tenure | Highlights |
|---|---|---|
| Balaji Vishwanath | 1713-1720 | Got chauth and sardeshmukhi rights from Mughal emperor (Husain Ali Sayyid, 1719). Office made hereditary in Bhat family |
| Bajirao I | 1720-1740 | Greatest Peshwa. Defeated Nizam at Palkhed (1728) and Bhopal (1737). Raided Delhi (1737). Established Maratha confederacy with Sindhia, Holkar, Gaekwad, Bhonsle |
| Balaji Bajirao (Nanasaheb) | 1740-1761 | Marathas reached Attock (1758). Defeat at Third Battle of Panipat, 14 January 1761, by Ahmad Shah Abdali (with Rohilla and Awadh support). Sadashivrao Bhau and Vishwasrao killed. Nanasaheb died of grief at Parvati |
| Madhavrao I | 1761-1772 | Recovered after Panipat. Defeated Nizam at Rakshasbhuvan (1763). Restored Maratha primacy north up to Delhi (1771). Died young of tuberculosis |
| Narayanrao - Madhavrao II - Bajirao II | 1772-1818 | Internal disputes. Anglo-Maratha wars. Treaty of Bassein (1802 — Bajirao II accepts subsidiary alliance). Final defeat at Koregaon and Bhima-Koregaon (1818) |
Maratha Confederacy and Anglo-Maratha Wars
Five great houses after Bajirao I:
- Peshwa (Pune) — Bhat family.
- Bhonsle (Nagpur).
- Gaekwad (Baroda).
- Holkar (Indore) — Malhar Rao, Ahilyabai (1767-95 — renowned ruler-administrator).
- Sindhia (Gwalior) — Mahadji Sindhia (1761-94), De Boigne's modernised army.
Three Anglo-Maratha Wars:
- First (1775-82): Treaty of Surat (Raghoba), Battle of Wadgaon, Treaty of Salbai (1782) — status quo.
- Second (1803-05): Treaty of Bassein (Dec 1802) — Bajirao II accepts Subsidiary Alliance. Wellesley defeats Sindhia and Bhonsle (Assaye 1803, Argaon 1803). Treaty of Surji-Arjungaon (Sindhia) and Deogaon (Bhonsle).
- Third (1817-18): Triggered by Bajirao II's resistance. Battles of Kirkee (Khadki), Koregaon, Sitabuldi, Ashti. Peshwa surrendered. Confederacy dissolved; Bajirao II pensioned to Bithur.
CDS/OTA PYQ Examples
Q: The Council of Eight (Ashtapradhan) was instituted by:
(a) Akbar (b) Krishnadevaraya (c) Shivaji (d) Aurangzeb
Answer: (c) Shivaji.
Q: Chauth in the Maratha system meant:
(a) One-fourth of revenue exacted from neighbouring territories (b) One-half of land revenue (c) Tax on Muslims (d) Customs duty
Answer: (a) One-fourth — collected in lieu of protection from raids.
Q: The Third Battle of Panipat (1761) was fought between:
(a) Marathas and British (b) Marathas and Ahmad Shah Abdali (c) Marathas and Mughals (d) Marathas and Nizam
Answer: (b) Marathas under Sadashivrao Bhau against Ahmad Shah Abdali.
Q: The Treaty of Bassein (1802) was signed by:
(a) Shivaji (b) Madhavrao (c) Bajirao II (d) Daulatrao Sindhia
Answer: (c) Peshwa Bajirao II — accepted Subsidiary Alliance.
Q: Who succeeded Shivaji as Chhatrapati?
(a) Shahu (b) Sambhaji (c) Rajaram (d) Tarabai
Answer: (b) Sambhaji.
Q: Ahilyabai Holkar ruled from:
(a) Gwalior (b) Baroda (c) Indore (Maheshwar) (d) Nagpur
Answer: (c) Indore — with Maheshwar as her seat.
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Start Free Mock TestFrequently Asked Questions
How did the Marathas rise so quickly?
Geographical advantage of the Sahyadri (hill forts), Shivaji's leadership and fort-based guerrilla warfare, Aurangzeb's overstretched Deccan campaign that drained the Mughals, the Ashtapradhan and chauth-sardeshmukhi institutions, and the confederate structure that distributed power among five great houses.
What was chauth and sardeshmukhi?
Chauth was one-fourth of land revenue exacted from territories the Marathas claimed to protect from raids. Sardeshmukhi was an additional one-tenth claimed as the 'overlord of zamindars' of the Deccan. Together they could amount to 35% of a province's revenue.
Why did the Marathas lose at Panipat 1761?
Logistical failure (long supply lines from Pune, no allies among Jats and Rajputs after diplomatic missteps), Abdali's superior artillery and Rohilla-Awadhi alliance, and the surrounded position at Panipat preventing retreat. Defeat killed Sadashivrao Bhau and ~28,000 Marathas.
What was the Treaty of Bassein?
Signed 31 December 1802 — Peshwa Bajirao II accepted a Subsidiary Alliance with the British. Beginning of the Second Anglo-Maratha War as Sindhia and Bhonsle resisted. Treaty handed effective control of the Peshwa's territory to the Company.
Who was Ahilyabai Holkar?
Maratha queen of Indore (regent and ruler 1767-1795). Administered her state from Maheshwar on the Narmada with exemplary justice; built and repaired temples across India (Kashi Vishwanath, Somnath, Ujjain Mahakaleshwar, Rameshwaram). Considered a model Indian ruler.